Aksaule Zhanbozova

This study uses the new institutional economic theory and demonstrates how the quality of the institutional environment can be correlated with the development of e-commerce in different countries. The goal is to analyze the impact of international indices that assess the institutional environment on e-commerce penetration in countries with varying levels of economic development. The international indices used include the Networked Readiness Index, the E-Government Development Index, components of the Index of Economic Freedom, and indicators from The Worldwide Governance Indicators, such as control of corruption and rule of law. The level of e-commerce penetration was measured by its share in retail trade. The study analyzed developed countries with high e-commerce penetration, like the USA, the UK, Germany, South Korea, and Singapore, alongside developing countries, such as China, Turkey, Mexico, and Kazakhstan. The relationships between e-commerce penetration and international indices were identified using correlation analysis with the calculation of Spearman’s coefficient, followed by an assessment of the statistical significance of the obtained coefficients. The analysis revealed varying degrees of association between institutional quality and e-commerce penetration. Notably, the E-Government Development Index and the Networked Readiness Index showed positive correlations with e-commerce levels in all studied countries. However, the rule of law, control of corruption, and Investment Freedom indices showed varying correlations, indicating that these relationships are influenced by factors beyond economic development, such as political systems and regulatory approaches.

Acknowledgment
This study has been funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan (grant IRN AP14871419 “Formation of institutional environment of electronic commerce market in Kazakhstan, its evaluation and development mechanism”).

Type of the article: Research Article

Abstract
Income inequality remains a key socio-economic challenge in Kazakhstan, where persistent disparities reflect institutional weaknesses, structural imbalances, and limited effectiveness of redistribution mechanisms. This study aims to assess the influence of institutional quality, economic structure, and social policy on income inequality in Kazakhstan. The analysis is based on annual national and international statistical data for 2001–2023, covering indicators of governance quality, investment activity, labor market dynamics, and social protection. Methodologically, the study uses Spearman’s rank correlation analysis to identify statistically significant associations between the Gini coefficient and selected explanatory variables, without assuming linear relationships. The robustness of results is verified through significance testing at multiple confidence levels. The findings indicate that stricter rule of law and lower corruption are associated with reduced inequality (Spearman’s ρ ≈ –0.44 to –0.50, p < 0.05), while a higher share of state-owned enterprises correlates with greater disparities (ρ ≈ +0.47, p < 0.05). Investment per capita and household expenditures exert a moderate equalizing effect (each ρ ≈ –0.47, p < 0.05), whereas growth in real incomes and an expanding manufacturing sector are linked to wider gaps. Manufacturing share shows a strong positive association with inequality (ρ ≈ +0.80, p < 0.001), and overall income growth correlates positively as well (ρ ≈ +0.72, p < 0.001). Social transfers and pensions operate primarily as reactive measures, smoothing short-term fluctuations rather than achieving sustained redistribution. The findings provide guidance for public policy aimed at reducing income inequality and indicate that the strongest equalizing effects are associated with improvements in the rule of law, reductions in corruption, and higher investment activity, while growth in real household incomes and existing social transfers are largely reactive and do not ensure sustained redistribution.

Acknowledgment
This paper was prepared within the framework of the scientific and technical program IRN BR28713593 “Sustainable development of Kazakhstan’s economy in the context of new challenges: foresight, strategies and scenarios of modernization, institutions.”